“The farther we've gotten from the magic and mystery of our past, the more we've come to need Halloween."  ~~from October Dreams: A Celebration of Halloween by Paula Guran

November 15, 2002

Sociology of Religion

Dr. H----

Spiritualism in England and the United States

Agenda:

Spiritualism was a major force during the years spanning the Civil War and the First World War. However, Spiritualism's influence is never completely absent from modern day religion and spirituality. This paper will explain the key terms used in Spiritualist circles, as well as descriptions of specific "otherworldly" phenomena. Then, a brief history of the major personalities and events that are important to Spiritualism will be given. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Harry Houdini will be given special attention since they are the most famous of Spiritualism's adherents and detractors, respectively. The historical events and spiritual revolutions that paved the way for the advancement of Spiritualism will be examined. Special attention will be given to the specifically American and English origins, as well as more general causes. I will then touch upon the periods of Spiritualism's decline and the effects that it left behind. The paper will then end with a look at modern practices and personalities that owe much to the founders of Spiritualism.

Introduction- Spiritualism Now and Then:

Communicating with the dead has served many purposes since the human race began. For some, it is the basis for their religion. For others, it is nothing but an entertaining parlor game. Some people swear by it while others laugh at it. The simple concept has been the theme of movies, TV shows, and books. It paved the way for an entire industry in which psychic medium John Edward gets witty messages from deceased friends during his hit show, Crossing Over. However, while modern society has its own flavors and fads of spiritualism, nothing parallels the movement that began 1848 and lasted until the 1930s. Spiritualism began quietly, just a few rappings and tappings in one household. However, before long ghosts were appearing, otherworldly ooze was coming from the ears and stomachs of psychics, and one man had even begun levitating. During the years that the Spiritualists lived and the years that followed them, many people have attempted to discover what exactly made this movement so successful. Some have hypothesized that it was a religion that combined the better parts of both the Romantic Era and the Enlightenment. Spiritualism's emphasis was on the amazing, the absurd, and even the grotesque. At the same time it did what most other religious systems could not, that is offer the "proof" of its truth. Ectoplasm, mysterious emanations from a medium's body, and the physical appearance of ghosts could be plainly observed and studied. The Enlightenment had also sparked close examination of religious texts. In the face of discoveries, people now had to consider that maybe the Bible was not literal and historical truth. In addition, women were beginning to strive for equal rights in politics and the economy. Spiritualism offered plenty of opportunities for female spiritual leaders where traditional religions may have kept an all-male clergy. In the early 1900s, several families faced the death of sons, fathers, and other relatives due to the horror that was World War I. Traditional religion sometimes failed to ease the pain and certainly could not promise the bereaved an immediate reunion with their fallen loved ones like Spiritualism could. Undoubtedly, each of these events led to the promulgation of this new religion through out North America and England.

Key Terms and Phenomena of the Spiritualist Movement:

A true understanding of the amazement of the witnesses of spiritualist activity can only be gained after becoming acquainted with the various phenomena that populated the movement. The case of the Fox sisters of New York, considered the foundation of Spiritualism, introduced the world to mysterious rappings. The specifics of their story will be considered in the next section. Various numbers of rappings signified letters of the alphabet, enabling a deceased man to "communicate" with the young sisters and their audiences. Mediumship was another common practice in which an individual, sometimes aided by a spiritual guide, would contact deceased individuals to relay messages back and forth. Sometimes this involved automatic writing in which the medium allowed his or her hand to be used for spirits to write letters to their loved ones. Mediums usually met with the public during seances. Seances typically took place in darkened rooms, often in the home of the psychic or a benefactor. Attendees would sit around a table during the seance and wait for a visitation from beyond. Levitation was another method of demonstrating the power of spirits. With the power of levitation spirits could lift tables, books, vases, (and even a medium) from the ground and through the air. Eventually those attending a seance were even allowed to see and touch ghosts who, amazingly, could now materialize themselves. The most bizarre of spiritual phenomena was the materialization of ectoplasm. Ectoplasm was described by Harry Houdini as "emanations from a human body of such horrible, revolting, viscous substances" (Brandon, 1983:127). This is by no means a comprehensive list of the range of "talents" displayed by the mediums, however they are among the most common and most documented.

The History of Spiritualism and Its Key Players:

Spiritualism found its origin in the home of the Fox family in Hydesville, New York (Brandon, 1983). Young sisters, Katherine and Margaretta, began astounding their family with rapping noises of indeterminate origin. Eventually the strange noises became intertwined with a local ghost story and Spiritualism's first tale of communication with the dead was born. The sisters were then brought to the home of their older sister who taught herself their talent and became a medium herself. In fact, she took over their lives and dragged them from city to city in hopes of striking it rich. The three sisters did enjoy much success. Leah, the eldest sister, was an acclaimed psychic her whole life and enjoyed a comfortable life style. Unfortunately, her younger sisters did not fare as well. Margaretta had a difficult life, starting with the death of her husband, and withdrew from the movement. The very same older sister whom she had helped make rich disowned Margaretta. Kate, however, continued on practicing her mediumship abilities. Eventually the two younger siblings admitted they produced the rappings by decidedly ordinary means (Brandon, 1983). While the sisters allegedly told a confidante they made the noises by snapping unusually flexible joints in their feet, other people offered less original (possibly more probable) explanations such as clicking fingernails or hitting a foot against a table (Brandon, 1983:282). Either way, the rappings were not coming from deceased spirits.

At the same time the Fox sisters were still in business and even in the years following their demise, mediums were popping up all over America and England. One medium was Madame Blavatsky who enjoyed a good deal of success before some of her associates were discovered to have hired a local girl to play the part of a ghost (Brandon, 1983). However, far from being shamed out of the public life, Madame Blavatsky went on to found the Theosophical Society which remains in existence to this day (Brandon, 1983). Unlike the other Spiritualists, she managed to actually organize a system of beliefs and practices, gathering adherents around her and not just small audiences at seances. D.D. Home is a striking case. Home gain popularity after arriving in England. Originally, Home produced rappings and moved objects but his repertoire would become much more impressive as time went on. He also enjoyed great success in Russia, gaining the interest of the Tsar (Brandon, 1983:68)! While other Spiritualists had managed to use contortions of their bodies to "prove" spiritualist claims, Home essentially managed to fly. He remains one of the few influential mediums to avoid being formally disproved. Despite this striking claim, theories abound as to how he managed his "levitations". These include methods as simple as dimmed lights and shoes placed on his hands (Brandon, 1983:75). Despite his popularity, Home withdrew from society for unknown reasons. He was often sick so disease may have played a part in his disappearance. However, some suggest he was about to be exposed as a fraud or that he was involved in a homosexual scandal (Brandon, 1983:67). Home was a mysterious figure and died with out anyone discovering the truth behind his disappearance. Eusapia Paladino is best remembered for her ability to produce pseudopods and for the overtly sexual nature of her "performances" (Brandon, 1983). Pseudopods are mysterious appendages that, in this case, came from the medium's stomach. Eva C. also stunned onlookers with her ability to produce ectoplasm. Eva C. originally garnered attention by producing manifestations of a spirit known as Bien Boa. However, she eventually graduated to producing ectoplasm "from her neck, ankle, hands, or, most often, her mouth," (Brandon, 1983:152). Eventually, these emissions shifted from shapeless, blobs (resembling thin, less brightly colored Jell-O) to recognizable forms; the most popular of which was Dorsmica. However, things quickly began to fall apart when it was realized that Dorsmica bore a stunning and unmistakable resemblance to the king of Bulgaria. In fact, several of Eva's "phantoms" had recently appeared in a popular magazine. Among these "deceased" individuals was President Woodrow Wilson (Brandon, 1983:156). Eva was continuously searched before seances so her supporters explained away these ruinous allegations. After all, how did Eva sneak the photographs in? Several explanations were quickly given. These ranged from Eva's ability to regurgitate the photos and cloth that was draped around them to give them an ethereal look. Others suggested that her accomplice sneaked the materials in, while others believed secret hiding places in the room were set up before the seance (Brandon, 1983:158-9). Only a few years later, Eva completely disappeared from the public eye.

A Closer Look- The Believer and the Skeptic:

A new religious movement must be compromised of something more than talented leaders and miracle-workers. An understanding of the people behind the movement and knowledge of various psychic phenomena can do nothing to explain how people of all classes, occupations, and geographic areas came to believe that communication with the dead was possible. I believe the attraction to what the movement offered might be best explained with the examination of two of Spiritualism's most famous individuals.

One need not have been a talented medium to be involved in the Spiritualist movement. Two prominent figures were of great importance, one as an ardent supporter and the other as an outspoken critic. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle had a childlike approach to his newfound religion. He strongly believed in the Fox sisters despite their confession. Fans and historians alike pondered the mystery of how the creator of Sherlock Holmes, the epitome of rationalism, could have been so rooted in a seemingly unreasonable belief. This apparent contradiction makes more sense when one considers that Doyle was in good company. Sir William Crookes and Sir Oliver Lodge, both scientists, were backing the movement (Huntington, 1997). People have speculated that the loss of his son and brother during WWI prompted him to turn to Spiritualism as a means of communicating with them. Huntington, however, counters this theory by pointing out that the two deaths followed Doyle's conversion. Additionally, Doyle himself stated "'I must have definite demonstration'", showing that his religion could not be based upon blind faith (Huntington, 1997). Doyle's craving for a provable religious system made him much like the less-famous people who would flock to Spiritualism.

Harry Houdini was a conflicted man when it came to Spiritualism. He very much wanted to believe that communication with the dead was true and possible. He had lost his beloved mother and desired nothing more than to speak with her. Of his mother he wrote "If God in His infinite wisdom ever sent an angel upon earth in human form it was my mother" (Houdini, 1924:v). However, after constantly finding mediums who relied upon tricks and an unfortunate incident in which he felt tricked by his friends the Doyles, he steadfastly sought to disprove the fake mediums. He served as part of the investigating committee for Scientific American. In addition he examined several mediums on his own. In his book, A Magician Among the Spirits, Houdini discusses his findings concerning many of the mediums discussed in this paper. He writes that Eusapia, "in her crafty prime may have possessed the agility and abundant skill in misdirection together with sufficient energy and nerve to bamboozle her scientific and otherwise astute committeemen" (1924: 64-65). Houdini passed off her mediumship as an act that is made possible only by her physical flexibility and the sexual nature of her seances which bewildered "a lot of old scientists" (1924, 65). Houdini just as unmistakably sets himself up against the likes of the Fox sisters, Eva C., and Home. Yet, the entire time he insists that he is not a skeptic, merely a man who will not trickery to fool him. The question remains, how did two men who had at one time been friends end up on opposite sides of this issue? What exactly drove people to Spiritualism?

I view these two cases as indicative of the reasons people were brought to Spiritualism. While I do not doubt that Doyle was attracted to Spiritualism's scientific promise, I do think faith was a great part of his conversion. Tom Huntington describes Doyle as the child of a Catholic family who lost his faith while attending Jesuit schools (1997). Being raised in a religious family, Doyle probably acutely felt the loss of his Catholic faith. Religion played a large part in his early life and its absence left a hole. It was about that time that he began to consider spiritualist elements.

By contrast, Houdini was raised Jewish and seems to have maintained at least some religion through out his life. His quotes often contain references to the Almighty. Due to the loss of his mother, Houdini was interested in Spiritualism and hoped it would facilitate contact with her. Yet, he vigorously exposed mediums. It is my belief that Houdini did not experience the emptiness left by abandoned and unsatisfying religion as Doyle did. Therefore, he was not as prone to accept Spiritualism nor tenaciously defend it. In the end, I think the failure of various institutional religions was one of the biggest causes of the outbreak of Spiritualism.

The Causes of the Spiritualist Movement:

The Spiritualism in America and England often complimented each other. American mediums would tour England while English mediums could find favor in America. However, the sociological and spiritual causes that made the movement successful were manifest in different ways in the two countries. Each country had its own interests and problems that made Spiritualism attractive to the adherents of the nation.

Spiritualism in America:

In the 1840s immigration was on the rise in America. This brought in various ethnic and religious groups. Previously, Protestantism was the backbone of American society. Now that religious system was being challenged. The Bible's literalism that was, at one time, taken for granted was challenged. In addition, more cultures meant more religious systems. Furthermore, workers not only had to deal with machines taking over their jobs but more people were now vying for employment. With this increased pluralism and uncertainty, Protestantism was being challenged (Carroll, 1997:3). Carroll also draws a connection between the Fox sisters' rappings and the death of John Quincy Adams, both occurred in 1848. Adams was the "last major representative of the founding generation" (1997:3). To the Americans of this era, it probably seemed as if their "glory days" were slipping away from them and becoming part of a past that could not return. What could be more inspiring and more valuable to a country mourning their glorified past than the chance to reach out to those people who had lived in the past?

Many people speak of new religious movements as complete breaks with the religion that were active previous to their origin. With Spiritualism this was not necessarily the case. Some, like Arthur Conan Doyle, did see it as a radical break from the more established religions. Others used Spiritualism to revitalize existing religions. Such was the case with some Christians. Some inserted homilies into their seances or invoked the name "our Father". Some also utilized Christian hymns or hymns that had been altered to reflect a decidedly spiritualist stance (Carroll, 1997:137).

Spiritualism also drew Americans because of its democratic nature. While there were leaders in the movement there was the idea that anyone could communicate with spirits if they were willing. "For Spiritualists, the promise of democratized spirit communication made Spiritualism the only suitable religion for a democratic republic”, (Carroll, 1997:52). This meant that the power to converse with spirits was with in everyone to some extent. It also meant that anyone, regardless of social rank, could be in direct contact with the divine. One spiritualist, Andrew Jackson Davis, even adopted the form of the Declaration of Independence. He then adapted it to list his spiritual grievances. Davis struck out not against England, as the original had done, but the institutional churches that he felt ruled over the people (Carroll, 1997:35).

Spiritualism in England:

Weaknesses with in the established religion also played a large part in the success of Spiritualism in England. What Protestantism was to the United States, The Anglican Church was to England. Neither of the two churches had a monopoly on religion in their respective countries but they did represent large amounts of people. Just as Spiritualism had revitalized Protestantism, it was sometimes used for the same effect in the Church of England. Rene Kollar, a professor of history, points out that The Book of Common Prayer read "'the dead were no longer with us. They could neither be spoken to nor even about,'" (Kollar, 2000:16). This message offered no comfort to people in pain and grieving. It stressed that not only were their loved ones lost to them for the remainder of their earthly lives but also that discussion of them was wrong. Spiritualism could offer struggling Anglicans the hope of speaking with the very people whom their church said were permanently departed from them. Sometimes Spiritualism worked with in the confines of Christian religion to make their point more acceptable. For instance, they drew upon the Catholic idea of the Communion of Saints. Previously, this belief was long removed from Anglican practice. This doctrine promotes the belief in "the spiritual union which exists between all Christians, living or dead, and Jesus Christ," (Kollar, 2000:17). The Bible itself was re-examined with the intent of finding spiritualist overtones. Jesus could be viewed as using his own psychic powers and recruiting the apostles because of their powers (Kollar, 2000). In some ways it is hard to tell whether Spiritualism itself was altered by these ideas to be made more successful, or whether the beliefs changed because Spiritualism was all ready convincing people. Spiritualism's effects on society will be discussed later.

World War I had a very evident impact on Spiritualism's success. It had flourished for several years prior to the outbreak of war. However, it took on a new fervor when the war began. Families in the United States suffered the loss of sons and fathers, however; by comparison, England suffered much more. The actually fighting was much closer to home for English people. They did not enjoy the luxury of being an entire ocean away from the destruction of the Great War. In addition, they had to come to terms with their fallen expectations. Kollar reports that "[a]t the beginning of the conflict, most people believed that the war effort in Europe would be both swift and glorious" (2000:1). It became apparent in the early battles that victory would be neither swift nor merciful. D. Cannadine studied the impact of the war and found that one in eight soldiers were killed (Kollar, 2000:2). Almost every family in the country was intimately effected by the devastation caused by World War I. Unfortunately for England, war would not be the only cause of large numbers of fatalities. An additional 150,000 citizens died of influenza. Sadly, that loss of life occurred during a single season (Kollar, 2000:2).

Grieving families turned to religion to help them cope. People's dissatisfaction arose not because the clergy simply did not care. They were simply unable to successfully aid the people, even as they struggled to do so. The grief that comes with losing a loved one to something as vicious as war is often twofold. First, those left behind will grieve for themselves and their loss. Since many men died on the battlefield they were away from their families and unable to say their last good-byes. Secondly, there was the fear that maybe there was no afterlife. If that was the case where were their fathers and sons? Were their deaths meaningless? Developments in Spiritualism made the movement attractive to these grief-stricken English people and helped them in overcoming these two forms of grief.

Through mediums and automatic writing, fallen soldiers could once again live. Far from the Common Book of Prayer's view, Spiritualism taught that the dead were never away from us and that not only should we talk about them but we could now talk to them. Meeting lost loved ones was no longer a future promise of Heaven but was possible in the here and now. It was this chance of immediate and clear communication with relatives and friends that brought people around England to mediums. One such family seeking reunion was the Lodges.

Raymond Lodge was a soldier who died in 1915 in battle. Following his death, his parents began attending seances with a medium named Mrs. Osborne Leonard. During these consultations, the Lodges began to believe that Leonard was in fact channeling their dead son. During these communications, Raymond described an afterlife called "Summerland" (Kollar, 2000:8). Sir Oliver Lodge, Raymond's father, collected the descriptions of Summerland and eventually published them in a book entitled simply, Raymond. With the publication of this book, people around the world could read Raymond's glowing description of a comforting and beautiful afterlife. With writings like these the second need of grieving people could be at least partially satisfied. They no longer were made to worry if their loved ones survived and rested in peace. Raymond offered "documentation" of an afterlife in which they could visualize their loved ones in blissful existence.

General Causes of Spiritualism:

England and the United States both had specific and individual societal issues that made Spiritualism attractive to its adherents. However, many of the events that played a part in promoting Spiritualism from a small practice to a large movement were part of both countries. One trend that made Spiritualism popular in both America and England was the increase of feminism. Spiritualists were often involved in feminist and abolitionist movements. In fact, one feminist named Abby Kelly Foster "'rejoiced to see that the tendency of Spiritualism was to elevate woman'" (Braude, 1989:69). It has all ready been stated that the values of individualism and democracy were intimately connected to Spiritualism. The natural conclusion then was that Spiritualism would seek to elevate all individuals, women could be no exception. This was especially evident considering Spiritualism had grown out of the activities of two young women, the Fox sisters, and that Theosophy was the product of a woman. Several mediums were women and, in their own way, acted in place of the typically male leaders of the more established religions. Mediums often gathered a set group of believers around the, not unlike a preacher with his congregation. This move towards more equality for women changed the way women dressed. In some cases, they radically changed the sexual mores that had once been a mainstay of Victorian culture in the States and England.

Two important literary and cultural movements also helped pave the way for Spiritualism's success. The double effects of Romanticism and the Enlightenment made Spiritualism the perfect match for the occasionally contradictory interests of the two movements. Romanticism placed a great emphasis on emotion and feeling. The paintings and poems from that era are often fanciful and imaginative. Romanticism expressed the idea of a loving God and promoted an optimistic outlook on human nature (Carroll, 1997:19). Spiritualism substantiated these claims. In addition, Spiritualism's outward manifestations were generally enticing, absurd, and even grotesque. It is easy to imagine the average seance-sitter thrilling at the appearance of a "ghost" like Katie King and blanching at the site of ectoplasm in the same way that readers were both frightened and delighted with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. Spiritualism had the ability to hold onto Romanticism's focus on the strange and surprising. At the same time it kept one foot firmly planted in reality, as represented by the Enlightenment.

Despite the proliferation of Romantic thought, the Enlightenment also put a permanent stamp on society in America and England. Science was important and there was an increasing need for proof, something traditional religion could not give. Scientists were coming up with ideas, like evolution, which conflicted with the Bible's stories of the creation. Religion could not offer archeological findings or genetic theories to support its claims, as science did to support its theories. Christianity could not undeniably prove that Jesus Christ rose from the dead any more than Judaism could prove that God appeared to Moses or any of the other historic religions could offer proof for their beliefs. Those highly effected by the Enlightenment needed more than faith. However, this did not mean that they did not desire some sort of spiritual experience. They needed something that would restore their belief in the unseen world, yet be available for logical examination. Spiritualism was just the kind of movement that could supply it. That is, if one were willing to have faith in the trustworthiness of the mediums. During seances it was regular practice for a long-deceased spirit to appear to the audience in human, physical form. The audience was encouraged to touch the spirit (sometimes taking this to an extreme). Ectoplasm actually supplied something unknown and, presumably, unearthly which a scientist could actually test. This appealed to those highly educated people who wanted their religion to stem from careful study and observation. For the scientists who wanted a more active part in their religion, they could offer their support to those mediums found to be reliable and study others. However, in their enthusiasm with finding a spiritual system that allowed for scientific investigation, some educated people were too eager to support mediums. All manners of devices were constructed to test psychics and mediums. Sometimes the scientist could be a medium's best friend. If one were as lucky as Miss Florence Cook in her dealings with Dr. William Crookes, they could get a respected scientist to testify that they were genuine (Moore, 1977:139).

Spiritualism did not, however, always find itself on the side of science. While some scientists were impressed by mysterious physical manifestations, others regarded them as a challenge they sought to dismiss. The Society for Psychical Research was only one of many groups of scientists interested in spiritualist claims. The SPR sought to separate the myth from the genuine when it came to Spiritualism. While some of the members professed a belief in psychic ability, members agreed to remain unbiased. Much to the chagrin of spiritualists and theosophists, the SPR discredited Madame Blavatsky (Moore, 1977:236). However, the SPR supported Eusapia and a Mrs. Piper, a telepath, (Moore, 1977:148). The relationship between science and Spiritualism was conflicted at best. Yet, the same focus on science that so angered some mediums also brought them to the attention of a growing number of scientifically minded people.

The (Partial) Decline of Spiritualism:

Elements of Spiritualism are a permanent fixture of the human condition. Therefore, it is not easy to clearly say when the movement declined or even if it ever did. However, it does become evident that Spiritualism has its own peaks and lows. The first drop came in the 1870s. R. Laurence Moore says this happened simply because "its novelty faded" (1977,65). In addition he explains that after nearly 30 years Spiritualism was still unable to scientifically prove itself, a claim that had once made it so popular. Yet, so much of the data in this paper happened in the 1900s. The 1870s had apparently not been the end.

In 1888 a truly devastating (or so one would think) event occurred that threatened to permanently lull the movement (Brandon, 1983:228). It was that year that the Fox sisters announced their fraudulence. The mysterious rappings, which the sisters had made public, began the movement. In a sense, the founders of Spiritualism were renouncing their creation. Yet, they were largely ignored. By this time the Foxes had descended into alcoholism. Incredibly, the people who believed a dead man had communicated with the girls would no longer believe the women they had become. I think this instance alone proves that much of Spiritualism relied upon people simply wanting to believe. While some undoubtedly became disenchanted after Spiritualism failed to prove itself scientifically others had come to believe the claims. For this reason formerly rejected and exposed mediums like Eusapia and Blavatsky could reappear and still be successful. In Blavatsky's case she could still be regarded as respected founders of a religion. Spiritualism enjoyed resurgence during and after World War I. In the end, people's desire to know that grief and separation were only temporary far outweighed any disproof brought against the movement.

Spiritualism's Effects on Society:

It is quite obvious that society helped to shape the movement that became Spiritualism. The established religions' inability to help grieving followers, the death of heroes, a focus on new values like democracy, the horror of a world at war, feminism, and two important cultural movements all made Spiritualism a likely candidate for receiving a large amount of support. Yet, Spiritualism also left its impact upon society.

Much has been made concerning how Spiritualism was a reaction and alternative to weaknesses with in the established religions. However, the religions were not immune from Spiritualism. Several clergymen found themselves attracted to Spiritualism. In some cases it just became a part of the message they preached from their pulpits. In other instances, it prompted the formation of an entirely new and different religious belief system. Even well established and older religious groups felt the need to change in order to counteract Spiritualism. The Anglican Church saw the need to change or suffer the loss of followers. The Book of Common Prayer had once decried communication with the dead. Yet, after WWI the archbishop's committee suggested "a more adequate provision made in the Prayer Book to guide and satisfy the widespread desire for Prayers for the Dead" (Kollar, 2000:34). The Anglican Church Congress opened discussion concerning how the Christian view of afterlife compared to that offered by Spiritualism (Kollar, 2000:37). In 1920 bishops gathered and formed the Lambeth Conference, which formally dealt with Spiritualism. Their resolutions exemplified certain elements of Spiritualism while cautioning against its transformation of a cult, outside of the church (Kollar, 2000:155-56).

Spiritualism greatly influenced what was available to women in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Mediums were particularly vocal in the feminist movement. One, named Julia Branch, opined that "by the marriage contract, she looses control of her name, her person, her property, her labor, her affections, her children, and her freedom" (Braude, 1983:71). It was obvious some Spiritualists would seek to alter the state of marriage. Some of the ways in which Spiritualists sought to change the state of marriage was by making women economically independent. Spiritualism itself employed many women as mediums. This also meant working to give women equal wages as men received and allowing women to be able to choose whether of not to become mothers (Braude, 1983). Spiritualists also advocated free love. By this they did not mean to encourage shallow and brief relationships but instead sexual relationships built around love, whether confined to a marriage or not (Braude, 1983:128). One product of this practice of free love was the belief in “spiritual affinities”. This belief held that each person had a perfect mate and that individuals discovered their soul mate by communication with the other side. The belief was innocent enough but when taken to its extreme it “stressed the need to find one’s true spiritual mate in the present, even if that meant dissolving earthly bonds of marriage” (McGarry, 2000:11). This was a blow against both the institution of marriage, as it was traditionally viewed, and the churches that had presided at these conventional marriages.

In a rather indirect matter, Spiritualism led to a change in legislation concerning obscenity. In Molly McGarry’s article “Spectral Sexualities”, she details the activities of Anthony Comstock. The Comstock Law passed, as well as similar laws, after an article printed in a spiritualist newspaper particularly scandalized Comstock. The law was passed in 1873 and was the first to "police sexuality and govern traffic in sexual literature and information for nearly a century afterward" (McGarry, 2000:9). This essentially meant that no explicit sexual material could be sent through the United States mail. Woodhull & Claflin’s Weekly, a paper run by a prominent medium and feminist and her sister, garnered Comstock’s outrage when it published a report of an alleged affair of Henry Ward Beecher (McGarry, 2000:12). Comstock brought the sisters to court under the charge that they sent obscene material through the mail since the newspaper was mailed to the homes of its subscribers (McGarry, 2000:13). McGarry traces Comstock’s dismay with “obscene” material sent through the mail and into “pure” homes to the modern controversy concerning the V-chip. It was this elimination of boundaries that horrified Comstock. Undoubtedly he recognized that he would never succeed in eliminating all vice from the world but he did want to keep it from entering the private domain of homes where it might effect women and children. McGarry compares this to the current paranoia “that child molesters will infiltrate…homes via the Internet, materializing from America Online chat rooms into children’s bedrooms” (2000:23). With this, she draws a striking parallel to Katie King. It was this “spirit” who most often materialized into dimly lit séance rooms. It was not unusual for Miss King to kiss and embrace males, and females, gathered there.

Spiritualism also left behind a bona fide religion, Madame Blavatsky’s Theosophy. Practitioners still exist today. Blavatsky celebrated her religion as “greater knowledge concerning the mysteries of Nature and humanity than modern culture has yet evolved” (Moore, 1986:109). The Theosophical Society of America was founded in 1875 and still maintains its American headquarters in Illinois. The Historical Basis of Modern Theosophy, a pamphlet published by the society, gives a history of the society. Started by Blavatsky and Col. Henry S. Olcott, who both sought to introduce Eastern ideas to the West. To make this more evident, branches of the Society were founded in Eastern and Western countries (9). It also lists Blavatsky's main ideas. The principles behind Theosophy, as written by Blavatsky, are that Theosophy is the "accumulated wisdom of the ages", that there is one divine entity from which everything is born, that material life is impermanent, and that "the One" is eternal and undying. She also wrote that everything has consciousness, nothing happens by chance, nature is ordered and guided, and that individuals are reincarnated. These principles are carefully articulated in materials from the Society. In addition their mission statement is "the promotion of brotherhood and the encouragement of the study of religion, philosophy and science, to the end that man may better understand himself and his place in the universe" (12).

Modern Spiritualism:

When we pick up the religion-themed section of the newspaper or discuss religion with friends and associates it does not become immediately apparent that Spiritualism survived. There is generally no advertisement for the local Spiritualist church in the paper and few people when asked "So, what religion are you?" answer "I am a Spiritualist". However, if you dig a little deeper and ask more questions it quickly becomes evident Spiritualism is alive and well. Remnants of it survive in the adult children who experience moments in which they swear they felt the presence of a deceased parent. Or the widow who believe that arranging a certain number of candles of particular colors will convince her husband that it is time to communicate, years after his death. Even children's parties testify to Spiritualism's grasp on humanity when someone pulls out the Ouija board or hangs out in the bathroom in hopes of reaching Bloody Mary. No doubt some of these participants approach these activities as nothing more than foolish games but the existence of these practices suggest at least some still believe. The success of movies like Ghost and What Lies Beneath testify that the belief in communication with the dead is still very powerful. Psychics like John Edward may get their own TV shows in which they attempt to prove communication with the dead. Edward's Crossing Over has made him wildly popular. Edward gives private readings (although, according to his web site, he is no longer taking appointments on account of the huge waiting list) and tours the country giving seminars. These seminars are much like what is seen on Edward's TV show. Audience members sit around, each hopefully waiting for a message or waiting to be convinced. Sometimes the best Edward can do is to say "There's someone here who had a really close relationship with someone whose name begins with J". Edward then questions the audience until he has discovered whom the spirit is trying to point out to him. Often his messages do not make sense to the participant, though many later claim that the message did become clearer after discussing it with other family members or friends. Outsiders view the show as laughable or even pathetic but others genuinely believe. There does not seem to be a scientific element to the latest manifestations of Spiritualism, like Crossing Over. Failure of religion also does not seem to play as large a part. John Edward is himself a practicing Catholic. Instead, it seems more to supplement religion than actually take the place of it for many people. Grief and the inevitability of death, however, are as constant as they were when Spiritualism began. The chance to visit with deceased loved ones is the main factor that brings modern spiritualists to people like Edward.

Their belief in the face of such skepticism is, I think, best exemplified by a small book of paranormal stories I found entitled Out of the Silence. In it the author, Patrick Mahony, very clearly explains that his stories are all true. In the preface of his book, he writes, "This is not a book of ghost stories... I have simply collected the facts" (1948, iii). Mahony goes on to describe tales of teachers who can bilocate due an "etheric double" (1948:7) to a tale of a famous poet, Dante Rosetti, who finds proof of his own reincarnation in an old painting (1948:12). Mahony's pure faith in Rosetti's experience despite having never met the man is much in keeping with Sir Arthur, with his undying faith in the Fox sisters. Much has changed since Doyle became a spiritualist. Yet, the movement has remained so popular. Maybe it is simply because humans will always desire knowledge that their loved ones, and later themselves, will live on.

My Conclusion:

Examining what some of my contemporaries see in Spiritualism led me to examine what I saw in it. I approached this paper not knowing what I would find. I was somewhat acquainted with the stories of the Fox sisters and had seen a documentary or two on Home. Houdini has always interested me for his seemingly paradoxical nature (hosting seances while at the same time debunking several mediums). I became interested in what it was that brought the various mediums, followers, and skeptics to Spiritualism. Previous to this project I had assumed it was either because of monetary needs or some intense pain resulting from the death of a loved one. The connection of science and the failure of mainstream religion never entered my mind. Growing up I learned about science and religion at the same time, both in Catholic schools. Except for when I was very young, I never took the claims of the Bible (i.e. that all of humanity stem from one man and one woman) literally. So when I learned about evolution, I did not really care. However, in the case of people living during Spiritualism's heyday, evolution, biblical criticism, and other theories were all very new. Many people undoubtedly had spent most of their lives believing the Bible, word for word. So when scientific findings began to debunk these ideas, it was no doubt a problem for adherents of historical religions. Researching this problem brought me out of my own time which is so driven by science and made me reflect on what things were like when science was just becoming so dominant.

I also thought reading about the mediums and what became of them was interesting. In some cases it was depressing. This was especially true in the case of the Fox sisters who were pulled into a movement they had unwittingly created while only children, resulting in alcoholism and abandonment by family and lovers. Learning the technique mediums sometimes used was also interesting because it made me think about how much we can give away about ourselves. This was especially evident in an article written by Peter Stanford. Stanford is an author whose latest book is entitled Heaven: A Traveler's Guide to the Undiscovered Country. Following the death of his mother, he began researching heaven. He found himself, unexpectedly, drawn to the idea of attending a seance. Earlier this year he gave his account to New Statesman magazine. Stanford described his visit to a modern day seance and told of how a medium correctly identified that a young woman considered herself a healer. The young woman excitedly agreed and even the author began to feel impressed. Finally, the seance ended and Stanford made the following observation. "The blond head [of the healer] is just turning happily out through the door when I spot, swinging from her hand, a white plastic bag - which was no doubt at her feet in the front row of the room emblazoned with the logo of an alternative medicine shop" (2002:33). In general, writing this paper demystified John Edward and his ilk for me, just as the white bag demystified Stanford's psychic. Most importantly, this paper encouraged me not to judge the entire Spiritualist movement. While some mediums were interested mostly in their pocketbooks, not every medium was practicing their craft for purely economic reasons.

Sources

Brandon, Ruth, The Spiritualists. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1983.

Braude, Ann, Radical Spirits. Boston: Beacon Press 1989.

Carroll, Bret E., Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press

1997.

Edward, John J., The Official John Edward Page.

<http://www.johnedward.net/privatereadings.htm> 2002.

The Historical Basis of Modern Theosophy. Illinois: The Theosophical Society in America.

Houdini, Harry, A Magician Among the Spirits. New York: Harper and Brothers 1924.

Huntington, Tom, "The man who believed in fairies," Smithsonian, Vol. 28, Issue 6: p104-112.

1997.

Kollar, Rene, Searching for Raymond. Lanham: Lexington Books 2000.

Mahony, Patrick, Out of the Silence. Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man, Inc.

1984.

McGarry, Molly, "Spectral Sexualities," Journal of Women's History, Volume 12, No 2: 20p.

2000.

Moore, R. Laurence, In Search of White Crows. New York: Oxford University Press 1977.

---. Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans. New York: Oxford University Press

1986.

Stanford, Peter, "Knock, knock. Who's there? A dead man's spirit," New Statesman, Vol. 131, Issue 4582: p32. 2002.

This newsletter is dedicated to John Dye who reminded us that we don't need ringing bells, rappings, or ectoplasm to show us that God loves us and has a Home waiting for us.

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